Reigeluth's Elaboration Theory
It provides a macro prescriptive framework for selecting, sequencing, synthesizing, and summarizing the content.
Principles:
1) Instruction should be organized in increasing order of complexity for optimal learning
2) The learner needs to develop a meaningful context into which subsequent ideas and skills can be assimilated
3) Sequencing strategies may be topical or spiral
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Algo-Hueristic Theory
The theory suggests that all cognitive activities can be analyzed into operations of an algorithm, semi-algorithm, heuristic, and semi-heuristic nature. Once discovered, these operations and their systems can serve as the basis for instructional strategies and methods. The theory specifies that students ought to be taught not only knowledge but the algorithms and heuristics of experts as well. They also have to be taught how to discover algorithms and heuristics on their own.
Principles
3. Teaching students how to discover processes is more valuable than providing them already formulated
4. Break processes down to elementary operations of size and length suitable for each student
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David Ausubel: Meaningful Verbal Learning & Subsumption Theory
Meaning is created through some form of representation equivalence between language (symbols) and mental context. Two processes are involved:
1) Reception, which is employed in meaningful verbal learning
2) Discovery, which is involved in concept formation and problem solving
His theory emphasis on the learning methods of speech, writing, and writing.
To subsume is to incorporate new material into one's cognitive structures. This existing structure provides a framework into which the new learning is related, hierarchically, to previous information or concepts
When one encounters completely new unfamiliar material, then rote learning, as opposed to meaning leaning takes place. Rote learning can be used to construct meaning learning later. Think of religious rituals. As a child, you do them but do not understand them. As you get older, you start to understand the meaning, purpose and symbolism of such rituals.
Two types of subsumption:
1) Correlative subsumpation - new material is an extension or elaboration of what is already known
2) Derivative subsumpation - new material or relationships can be derived from the existing structure
Ausubel is a proponent of didactic, expository learning methods. From this perspective, expository (verbal) learning approaches encourage rapid learning and retention, whereas discovery learning (Bruner) facilitates transfer to other contexts.
Ausubel believed that it was important for teachers to provide a preview of information to be learned (advanced organizer). This would enable students to start with a "Big Picture" of the upcoming content, and link new ideas, concepts, vocabulary to existing mental maps of the content area.
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Jerome Bruner - Spiral Curriculum
Bruner believed that the curriculum should continually revisit basic ideas, building upon them incrementally and making links and connections between them until the pupil has grasped full understanding.
He proposed that the starting point of learning should be what learners already know, believe, and can do already.
The importance of "play" - which is leaning by doing
With a spiral approach, connections between the things encountered earlier and later are made clear. More important for pupils to have an intuitive grasp of the subject rather than knowing the proper terms or formulas.
Teachers should help student learn to think intuitively by guessing. Teachers need to build pupil's self-confidence because such thinking requires a willingness to make mistakes.
The importance of presenting children with ideas and challenges that are not too far from their natural way of thinking.
Children may forget facts but making connections will help them to work things out for themselves.
Making connections enables the transfer to take place. There are two kinds of transfer:
1) Learning a skill
2) Learning a general idea that can be used as a basis for recognizing subsequent problems as variations of the original idea
Bruner advocated children learning through personal discovery rather than passive receivers of information.
